The Turn Of The Screw By Henry James (1843 - 1916) Essays - Fiction

The Turn of the Screw by Henry James (1843 - 1916) The Turn of the Screw by Henry James (1843 - 1916) Type of Work: Early psychological thriller Setting England; nineteenth century Principal Characters The "governess," an unnamed twenty- year-old woman Mrs. Grose, an older housekeeper Flora, an eight-year-old girl Miles, a ten-year-old boy Story Overveiw At Christmas time, a group of people in an old country home swapped ghost stories. One story tl)at particularly chilled tl-te group involved the visitation of a ghost to a young boy. When it was finished, a man in the group, Douglas, asked: "If the child gives the effect, another turn of the screw, what do you say to two children?" Weeks later, when Douglas was able to obtain the manuscript containing this second story, he read the narrative to his listeners, after prefacing it with a bit of background. The tale's author was a woman who had been his sister's governess, and Douglas was the only person to whom she had revealed her dreadful tale before her death ... On a pleasant June afternoon, a young lady of twenty, "the youngest of several daughters of a poor country parson," arrived in London to answer an advertisement for the position of governess. The advertiser was a bachelor who had been left guardian to his young nephew and niece. The uncle, a wealthy and charming gentleman, "beguiled" the young woman instantly The terms of her employment were quite simple: she was to take charge of the two children on his country estate of Bly in Essex, and to "never trouble him . . . neither appear nor complain nor write about anything." She would be replacing the former governess, a young lady who had died under curious circumstances. While the mystery surrounding the prior governess' death did cause the woman to Pause and consider, she nonetheless accepted the position and took the coach to Bly. The new governess soon met stout Mrs. Grose, the Bly mansion's head housekeeper, and little Flora, the bachelor's niece. The girl was a "vision of angelic beauty," and the governess looked forward to "teaching" and "forming" the child. Miles, the little boy, was due home in a few days for his school holiday, and according to Mrs. Grose, the governess would be equally "taken" with Miles. Both children seemed incapable of giving any trouble. However, before Miles arrived, the governess received two letters. The first was from her employer, instructing her to handle the details of the second letter, sent from the headmaster of Miles' school. This second letter in effect stated that Miles was dismissed from school, permanently. This news worried the governess, but Mrs. Grose, upon hearing the report, could not believe it, and urged her to wait until she met Miles before forming a judgement. A few days later Miles arrived, and the governess beheld his "positive fragrance of purity." In private she told Mrs. Grose that the headmaster's accusation was "grotesque." Together they decided not to bother Miles' uncle further about the matter. The governess enjoyed the summer days in the country. It was the first time in her life that she "had known space and air and freedom." Then, while strolling through the garden one day as the children napped, the governess allowed her imagination to wander. She imagined how charming it would be to meet a handsome young man around the turn of the path. Still deep in fantasy, she rounded the corner of the garden and it was as though her "imagination had, in a flash turned real." On one of the towers of the old mansion stood a figure; not the man she had been dreaming of, but a strange fellow who stared at her menacingly for a minute, then disappeared. The next Sunday evening as the governess entered the rain-shrouded dining room, she became aware of "a person on the other side of the window and looking straight in." It was the same man she had seen earlier, but at that instant she realized that "he had come for someone else." She rushed out of the house to the spot where he stood, but again he had vanished. She looked in through the window, as he had done, and there she saw Mrs. Grose, peering out just as she herself had stood a moment before. When the housekeeper asked for an explanation, the governess told her the whole story. As she described the elusive stranger, a flash of recognition crept into Mrs. Grose's face. The man the governess had seen, she said, was Peter Quint, their employer's former valet, who had died some time before. The governess felt that Quint's hovering presence boded

Free Essays on Manment Information

In today's business environment it is getting harder and harder for organisation’s to not only survive but to compete against other organisation’s. Information technology plays a big part in helping companies compete and survive. Companies that have branches or franchises need to make sure that they can communicate with the head office so that orders can be passed down. Most of a mangers time is spent 1 Passing information and ideas upwards to senior management to aid their decision making 2 Providing other department managers with information which will help them do their jobs more effectively 3 Passing information down wards to subordinates 4 Conveying attitudes or creating them 5 Receiving and interpreting facts and data 6 Communicating with people out sides the company e.g. suppliers. The manager needs resources to aid him with the task mentioned above. Management information systems and decision support systems are two such resources. Computers and information systems play critical roles in the operation of most organisations. All organisations, from factories to banks, are highly dependent on information for their day-to-day operations. The vast quantity of information that large corporations and government agencies need to operate, and the speed with which that information is created and used, makes computer-based information systems critical to such operations. What is a Management Information System? There are different definitions of a management information system: â€Å"Management Information system products produce information products that support many of the day-to-day decisions –making needs of management. Reports, displays, and responses produced by such systems provide information that managers have specified in advance as adequately meeting their information needs.† Taken from Management Information Systems Third edition by James A. O’Brien PG 370 â€Å"Management information system can be def... Free Essays on Manment Information Free Essays on Manment Information In today's business environment it is getting harder and harder for organisation’s to not only survive but to compete against other organisation’s. Information technology plays a big part in helping companies compete and survive. Companies that have branches or franchises need to make sure that they can communicate with the head office so that orders can be passed down. Most of a mangers time is spent 1 Passing information and ideas upwards to senior management to aid their decision making 2 Providing other department managers with information which will help them do their jobs more effectively 3 Passing information down wards to subordinates 4 Conveying attitudes or creating them 5 Receiving and interpreting facts and data 6 Communicating with people out sides the company e.g. suppliers. The manager needs resources to aid him with the task mentioned above. Management information systems and decision support systems are two such resources. Computers and information systems play critical roles in the operation of most organisations. All organisations, from factories to banks, are highly dependent on information for their day-to-day operations. The vast quantity of information that large corporations and government agencies need to operate, and the speed with which that information is created and used, makes computer-based information systems critical to such operations. What is a Management Information System? There are different definitions of a management information system: â€Å"Management Information system products produce information products that support many of the day-to-day decisions –making needs of management. Reports, displays, and responses produced by such systems provide information that managers have specified in advance as adequately meeting their information needs.† Taken from Management Information Systems Third edition by James A. O’Brien PG 370 â€Å"Management information system can be def...

Critically Analyse the Legal and Political System of England Regarding Assignment

Critically Analyse the Legal and Political System of England Regarding the Case Study - Assignment Example The Financial Services Authority and the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills are the two bodies monitoring the enforcement of the Companies Act 2006 in UK (Cahn 2010, p.19). It should be noted that the Companies Act 2010 contains strict rules in regard to a series of issues, such as ‘the involvement of directors in the trading of their companies’ securities’ (Cahn 2010, p.19) or the approval of critical transactions by the shareholders (Cahn 2010, p.19). However, the key mission of the above Act, as of company law in UK in general, is ‘to facilitate the operation of market forces’ (Hicks and Goo 2008, p.12). This trend is made clear in the following fact: privatization of companies in UK is continuously developed, mostly through the increase of employee share schemes across UK (Hicks and Goo 2008, p.12). The pressure on companies for aligning their activities with existing laws can be differentiated, under the influence of contradicting int erests (for example, the interests of employees as opposed to those of shareholders) and the need for securing competition. 1b. UK law and employee relations One of the most important characteristics of the legal framework of employee relations in UK is its inability to secure employee rights; the fact that the existing laws focusing on employee relations in UK are limited, compared to other countries, is considered as the key reason for the above phenomenon. Moreover, the laws related to employee relations seem to favour rather the employer, an assumption verified through the following fact: traditionally, the length of employment period has been a key term for deciding the right of employees across UK to ask for compensation in case of unfair dismissal (Hollinshead, Nicholls and Tailby 2002, p.519). Even employees in fixed term contracts are often asked to waive their rights to claim compensation in case of dismissal because of redundancy (Hollinshead, Nicholls and Tailby 2002, p. 519). Moreover, for the UK labour law, the rules related to employee relations can be applied only in cases of employees who work on the basis of a contract (Countouris 2007, p.78). This means that the UK labour law does not protect employees who work without an employment contract. In most European countries, employees’ rights are protected even if there is no employment contract; for instance, certain social security rights are recognized to employees who work without employment contract (Countouris, 2007, p.78). On the other hand, there is a series of legal texts addressing various employee relations’ issues; for example the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and the Wages Act 1986 (Countouris 2007, p.78-79). When evaluating the decision of Marks and Spencer to announce the closure of its stores in France just before the meeting with the employees’ representatives, reference should be made to the following fact: indeed, Marks and Spencer is primarily bound by the UK labour law. The application, though, of the labour laws of the host country, France, where the firm’s stores are located, cannot be excluded especially at the level that the local laws would be in opposition with the UK relevant legal rules. Marks and Spencer operates globally. This means that

Management Issues and Policies Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Management Issues and Policies - Case Study Example Globally, the firm is rated the ninth merchandising corporation. Additionally, Costco has been regarded the largest seller of fine wine entirely in the world, since October 2007. In the United States in particular, the main challengers operating membership stores are companies such as Sam's Club as well as BJ's Wholesale Club. Between the two competitors, Sam's Club actually has more warehouses than Costco as a matter of comparison. However, Costco does register superior overall sales volume (Costco Wholesale company profile 8). This informs Costco's ability to employ roughly 142,000 employees on full- and part-time basis, including even the seasonal workforce. Costco had about 55 million memberships by September 2009.[update] For financial year 2009, the Costco's sales summed to $71.42 billion of which $1.28 billion formed the firm's net profit. This huge profit margin particularly has been boosted by the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) which crowned Costco the best in retail store industry and further rated it with an achievement of 83 in Q4 in the year 2008. Financially, Costco is doing well. In fact, like all other merchandisers, Costco do make fundamental decisions. These decisions are two fold: first, they pay keen attention at the price at which it sells its products. Second, they also do consider the degree of service it provides to its consumers. With regard to these two key decisions, the firm usually involves relevant departments to establish workable policies. For instance, a department store might be needed to set the price of its merchandise at a relatively higher level and at the same time provide a great deal of service. On the other hand, a discount store might be tasked to price its merchandise at a relatively low level and duly provide limited service. Their commodities or products are also playing a great role to their huge sales volumes. This argument is actually informed by the type of discount they offer to their customers. Their discount stores for example do require a customer to purchase memberships which intern p ermits them to make their purchases in bulk and yet at a reduced wholesale prices hence affordable. According to Needles, B.E. et al (291) in their joint book Principles of Accounting, Costco's financial efficiency and effectiveness are also propelled by their purchases of merchandise in bulk from a number of suppliers. In addition, Costco do put their purchases on racks in its own warehouse-like stores and in turn vend the goods to customers at quite low prices, with negligible individual services. COSTCO'S FINANCIAL HIGHLIGHTS Operating Results (In million) Fiscal-Year Ended August 28, 2005 August 29, 2004 Change Net revenue $ 52,935 $ 48,107 10.0% Cost of sales 46,347 42,092 10.1 Gross margin $ 6,588 $ 6,015 9.5 Operating expenses 5,114 4,630 10.5 Operating income

College of Nursing Entrance Letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

College of Nursing Entrance Letter - Essay Example I always sought to help others who were injured or in need of my assistance at a very young age. I became inclined to enter the field of medicine during my high school years. At the time, my counselor enrolled me into the two-year dental assistant program. This program contributed to the discovery of my passion to help others. During the two years, I learned how to make dental models, mount and develop x-ray films, take impressions, follow dental procedures, and most importantly employ my knowledge as an allied healthcare professional. My dental assistant teacher referred me to physicians and dentists who helped me to expand my hands-on experience. I advanced my education by attending the Institute of Health Education and acquired my X-Ray license. Upon receiving my X-Ray license, I attended the Certified Dental Assistant program to increase my knowledge of oral hygiene techniques and preventive healthcare methods. The dental field became a transition to enter the nursing field after a trip to Peru. My aunt, an Obstetrician /Gynecologist, found out that I had an interest in providing healthcare to patients and she recommended that I shadow her. Throughout the week, my aunt gave me information concerning the various fields in nursing and its vigorous lifestyle. During that period I noticed that my aunt devoted herself to her patients. Thus, my interest in the medical field and my aunts ambition to achieve wellness for others influenced me to continue the nursing field. I was convinced and I knew that as I was capable, willing, and desiring to fulfill my ambitions to help others. I also realized, that as I fulfilled all the requirements to become a nurse, I would not only deliver proper healthcare in the United States, but also around the world. As we know, mankind is not liberated from diseases, therefore applying my knowledge would help others. I am a sociable, friendly, and patient person. I am responsible, self-disciplined, and attentive. I recognize

Properties of Zeolites as Cataystics

Properties of Zeolites as Cataystics 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ZEOLITES Zeolites are crystalline aluminosilicates, composed of TO4 tetrahedra (T = Si, Al) with O atoms connecting neighbouring tetrahedral, that contain pores and cavities of molecular dimensions (Breck, 1974). Many occur as natural minerals, but it is the synthetic varieties which are among the most widely used sorbents, catalysts and ion-exchange materials in the world (Barrer, 1982). The channels are large enough to allow the passage of guest species. In the hydrated phases, dehydration occurs at temperatures mostly below about 400 °C and is largely reversible. The framework may be interrupted by (OH, F) groups: these occupy a tetrahedron apex that is not shared with adjacent tetrahedra. Zeolites are different from other porous hydrates, as they retain their structural integrity upon loss of water. The Structure Commission of the International Zeolite Association identifies each framework with a three-letter mnemonic code (Baerlocher et al., 2001) e.g. Amicite- GSI; Faujasite- FAU etc. 1.1 IMPORTANCE OF GREEN PROCESSES In the chemical industry, the acceptability of a process is not only governed by cost and yield but in terms of eco-friendliness and pollution abatement. Choosing a more efficient catalytic route has greatly improved the efficiency of chemical processes. Green chemistry has been defined as the design of chemical products and processes in order to reduce or eliminate the generation of hazardous substances (Armor, 1999). The principles of green chemistry listed by Armor (1999) employs future approaches to new chemical processes. It includes: efficient use of raw materials, energy efficiency, use of biodegradable products and other subtle features. 2.0 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ZEOLITES 2.1 NATURAL ZEOLITES Research in the field of zeolite science and technology made its first steps with natural zeolites and was mostly focused on natural zeolites until the beginning of the 1950s. The history of zeolites began in 1756 when Swedish mineralogist A.F. Cronstedt discovered the first zeolite mineral, stilbite when studying its apparent properties discovered its strange behaviour upon heating although there is no certain proof of its identity. The term ‘zeolite was coined from two Greek words, ‘zeo (to boil) and ‘lithos (stone). On the contrary, the first zeolite, chabazite, described by Bosch DAntic in 1792 has clear evidence in literature. Several other zeolites were discovered in the following years and around 1850, only about 20 zeolite types were reported in mineralogy books, including analcime, brewsterite, chabazite, edingtonite, epistilbite, faujasite, gismondine, gmelinite, harmotome, heulandite, laumontite, levyne, mesolite, natrolite, phillipsite, scolecite, stilbi te, and thomsonite. Starting from the middle of the 19th century until about 1975, there was a moderate increment in the number of zeolites discovered (about one new type every 6-7 years) and a clear acceleration in the last twenty five-thirty years. About 40 natural zeolites are known (Tschernich, 1992). Most zeolites known to occur in nature are of lower Si/Al ratios, since organic structure-directing agents necessary for formation of siliceous zeolites are absent. Sometimes natural zeolites are found as large single crystals, though are very difficult to make in the laboratory. The catalytic activity of natural zeolites is limited by their impurities and low surface areas. However, interests in natural zeolites shifted towards zeolite synthesis and synthetic materials, as they offered a series of advantages such as wider versatility, more open frameworks( for adsorption and catalysis),and quality in constitution and chemistry. As a result, research on natural zeolites, was mainly devoted to ion exchange process which was discovered around 1850 (Thompson, 1850; Way, 1850). Few years later, Eichhorn observed that chabazite and natrolite behaved as reversible ion exchangers. In the early decades of the 20th century, ion exchange selectivity of a variety of zeolites for peculiar cations, e.g., ammonium was performed (Barrer, 1950) and starting from the end of the 1950s, found uses in various sectors of environmental relevance, e.g., treatment of wastewaters and soil rebuilding and remediation. The most recent frontier in the application of natural zeolites is in the field of life sciences. One of the drawbacks of natural zeolite research for application purposes is due to the limited availability of zeolite as it is a precious mineral, compared to the synthetic counterparts which could be mass produced at a lower cost (Colella, 2005). 2.1.1 Formation The pathway of natural zeolite formation is similar to the laboratory synthesis of zeolite. Zeolite nucleation, crystallisation and crystal growth take place as a result of slow to fast cooling of warm to hot magmas(of volcanic origin), which are basic, oversaturated in silicate and aluminate species and contain alkaline and/or alkali-earth cations. hot fluid + volcanic ash oversaturated basic magma zeolite crystals {solution + gel) The magma is obtained via hydrolysis of the original glassy material and is responsible for the tetrahedral coordination of aluminium and together with silicon. The main factors responsible for the structural formation are temperature, chemistry of the ash and the chemical composition of the resulting solution. Gel is formed along the process but is however not directly connected to nucleation and growth, as there is evidence that zeolite nuclei form from the oversaturated solution at the glass shards / solution interface (Aiello et al., 1980). Temperature and time are two factors which differentiate natural zeolitisation from laboratory synthesis. 2.1.2 Physico-chemical properties i.Cation exchange: The ion exchange properties of natural zeolites depend on their chemistry which ismainly in terms of selectivity. Selectivity depends on the framework topology, ion size and shape, charge density on the anionic framework, ion valence and electrolyte concentration in the aqueous phase (Barrer et al., 1978). ii.Reactions with alkalis: Oncein alkaline environments, zeolites become unstable as they tend to transform, similarlyto glassy systems, into more stable phases, usually into other framework silicates (Goto and Sand, 1988). The interaction of zeolite-rich materials with Ca(OH)2 give rise to calcium silicates and aluminates, which upon hydration are able to harden in both aerial and aqueous environments. This behaviour makes them to be known as pozzolanic materials Thermal properties: Heating of zeolite powder induces physical and chemical changes, which have been shown to include water loss (which causes expansion on heating), decomposition and gas evolution, phase transition, structure breakdown, re-crystallisation, melting etc (Colella, 1998). This property enables zeolite tuff stones to display good sound-proofing and heat insulation and serve as good building materials. Depending on zeolite nature, chemical composition and rock constitution, the tuff expands as a result of quick heating at temperatures of 1250 °C or above, inadvertently followed by a rapid quenching to room temperature. 2.2 SYNTHETIC ZEOLITES Early work could be traced back to the claimed synthesis of levynite by St Claire Deville in 1862 as there were no reliable methods for fully identifying and characterising the products. The origin of zeolite synthesis however, evolved from the work of Richard Barrer and Robert Milton which commenced in the late 1940s. The first synthetic zeolite unknown as a natural mineral later found to have the KFI structure (Baerlocher et al., 2001 ) was discovered by Barrer when investigating the conversion of known mineral phases under the action of strong salt solutions at fairly high temperatures (ca. 170-270  °C). Robert Milton was the first person to use freshly precipitated aluminosilicate gels to carry out reactions under milder conditions. This led to the discovery of zeolites A and X (Milton et al., 1989). Initially, the synthesis of zeolites required the use of only inorganic reactants but was however expanded in 1961 to include quaternary ammonium cations leading to the discovery o f silica-rich phases (high-silica zeolites). Subsequently, more synthetic zeolites have been discovered (Baerlocher et al., 2001), as well as zeolite-like or zeolite-related materials (Szostak, 1989) known as zeotypes- represented by microporous alumino- and gallo phosphates (AlPO4s and GaPO4s) and titanosilicates. Studies on understanding zeolite synthesis have continued to be carried out upto the present day (Table 1). This has been due to discoveries of new materials, advances in synthetic procedures, innovations in theoretical modelling methods and, especially, by the development of new techniques for the investigation of reaction mechanisms and the characterisation of products. Table 1: Evolution of materials development in the zeolite field ‘‘Low Si/Al zeolites (1-1.5) A, X ‘‘Intermediate Si/Al zeolites (f2-5) A) Natural zeolites: erionite, chabazite, clinoptilolite, Mordenite Synthetic zeolites: Y, L, large-pore mordenite, omega ‘‘High Si/Al zeolites (ËÅ"10-100) By thermochemical framework modification: highly silicious variants of Y, mordenite, erionite By direct synthesis: ZSM-5, Silicate Silica molecular sieves silicalite Source: Flanigen (1980) 2.2.1 Mechanism of Hydrothermal Synthesis Experimental observations of a typical hydrothermal zeolite synthesis Due to its chemical reactivity and low cost, amorphous and oxide-like Si and Al which make up the microporous framework are mixed with a cation source usually, in a basic water-based medium. The resulting aqueous mixture is then heated in a sealed autoclave at above 100ËšC allowing the reactants to remain amorphous for sometime (induction period) after which crystalline zeolites are detected (Figure 2). Gradually, an approximately equal mass of zeolite crystals which is recovered by filtration, washing and drying replaces all the amorphous materials (Cundy and Cox, 2005).The bond type created in the crystalline zeolite product (e.g. zeolite A or ZSM-5) which contains Si-O-Al linkages is similar to that present in its precursor oxides, therefore the enthalpy change is not great. This process reduces nucleation rates, thereby forming larger crystals. Reactivity of the gel, temperature and pH affect the rate of zeolite formation as an increase in pH and temperature leads to increase in the rate of formation of zeolite crystals. In their mother liquors, the zeolitic phases are metastable, thereby transforming the initial zeolite into an undesired thermodynamically more stable phase (Ullmann, 2002). 2.2.3 Synthesis from Clay minerals Kaolin and metakaolin (calcining kaolin at 500-700 °C) are two important clays used for the production of the zeolites NaA, NaX, and NaY (Breck, 1974; Barrer, 1978) because binder-free extrudates and granules which offer advantages in adsorption technology are produced. 2Al2Si2O5(OH)4 2Al2Si2O7+4H2O Kaolin Metakaolin Depending on the zeolite, the clay is shaped and, SiO2and seed crystals are added and while in the preformed shape, the zeolite crystallises. Alternatively, zeolite is formed when the binder component of metakaolin undergoes hydrothermal treatment with sodium hydroxide solution (Goytisolo et al., 1973; Chi and Hoffman, 1977). Using ultrasonic radiation, reaction rate is enhanced and there is energy saving and lower production cost due to lower temperatures. This process is less often used as it could cause odor of the product due to impurities present in clay e.g. iron 2.2.2 Industrial Zeolite Synthesis Zeolite synthesis is an extremely broad area of research and due to differences in the preparation of each zeolite type, two representative zeolite types, TPA-ZSM-5 and zeolite Na-A, are chosen for a more detailed presentation of the synthesis {Table 2} (Jansen, 2001). Table 2: Synthesis mixtures, physical chemical properties of the representative zeolites Molar oxide ratio Na-A TPA-ZSM-5 SiO2 1 1 Al2O3 0.5 Na2O 1 0.16 H2O 17 49 TPA2O 0.3 T (ËšC) > 150 Physical Chemical properties Pore arrangements 3D, cages connected via windows 2D, intersecting channels Bronsted activity low High Affinity hydrophilic Hydrophobic Pore volume (cm3/g) 0.37 0.18 Source: Jansen (2001) The composition of zeolite product can be expressed by the cation type and its overall Si/Al ratio. In the preparation of zeolite, nucleation is the rate determining step which is influenced by a range of factors dependent on the temperature of the reaction mixture. Low Temperature Reaction Mixture: Here, the reaction mixture is prepared at low temperature, At high pH, condensation occurs when the nucleophilic deprotonated silanol group on monomeric neutral species is attacked (Figure 5). The acidity of the silanol group depends on the number and type of substituents on the silicon-atom (Jansen, 2001). Temperature raise of the reaction mixture from High Temperature Reaction Mixture: At this temperature, zeolites are formed from amorphous material which involves, reorganisation of the low temperature synthesis mixture, nucleation and precipitation (crystallisation). During the induction period, gel and species in solution rearrange from a continuous changing phase of monomers and clusters which disappears through hydrolysis and condensation, in which nucleation occurs (Jansen, 2001). The process particles become stable and nuclei forms, followed by crystallisation which could occur in metastable solid, highly dispersed or dense gel forms. Product quality, reaction time and yield influence efficient production of zeolites by optimising their composition. 2.2.2 Secondary Synthesis Methods Catalytic or adsorbent properties that cannot be achieved by direct synthesis utilise post-synthesis (secondary) treatments to increase catalytic activity, shape selectivity or porosity and thermal/hydrothermal stability. Dealumination and ion exchange are used to carry out these modifications. Dealumination The zeolite structure is selectively dealuminated by acid solutions, washing out aluminium out of the crystal, as was observed for zeolite A. However, for higher silica containing materials (clinoptilolite), a fully decationated structure is produced after continuous acid treatment. The metal ion is replaced with H3O+ followed by (Al+3 + H3O+) removal, generating a hydroxyl nest. Aluminium is removed from the framework but not the crystal by hydrothermal dealumination. The heterogeneity in the concentration of the framework and non-framework of aluminium depends on the type of modification used. Hydrothermal treatment causes the amorphous aluminium to collect on the crystal surface which through fluorosilicate treatment can reduce aluminium centred acid sites. Often, a secondary pore system is generated and hydroxyl nests can be annealed. In order to enhance the catalytic properties as well as stability, silicon, aluminium and other metal ions are introduced into the framework (Szostak, 2001). Other methods of producing thermally and hydrothermally stable cracking catalysts include: use of EDTA, SiCl4 vapor, and (NH4)2SiF6. Acid mediated dealumination process via aluminium extraction and generation of hydroxyl nest (Szostak, 2001) Ion Exchange This is an important technique in pore-size engineering for the production of zeolitic adsorbents (Breck, 1974). Ion exchange used in the production of Brà ¸nsted acid sites has major importance in the synthesis of solid acid catalysts (Ullmann, 2002). Ion exchange can be achieved also, for certain intermediate-silica and high-silica zeolites (e.g., mordenite) by treatment with mineral acids although involves the risk of dealuminating the zeolite framework (McDaniel and Maher, 1976). An indirect route via an ion exchange with ammonium salt solutions must be followed, producing the â€Å"ammonium form† calcined at ca. 400 °C to liberate ammonia and give the hydrogen form (Ullmann, 2002). When cations to be exchanged are positioned inaccessible cages, a sieve effect is produced. pH is an important factor in ion exchanging of highly charged transition metal ions in order to prevent metal hydroxide precipitation especially at low pH. 2.3 CHARACTERISATION OF ZEOLITES In order to determine the relationships between the physical and physicochemical as well as sorptive and catalytic properties of zeolites, it is important to know the structural, chemical and catalytic characteristics of zeolites. Several standard techniques are employed in zeolite characterisation. The most common of which is X-ray diffraction used in determining the structure and purity of zeolites. Others include: x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) or atomic absorption spectrometry, used to analyze elemental composition, sorption analysis to study the pore system, IR-spectroscopy, typically using adsorbed probe molecules to characterize the acid sites, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), for determining the size and morphology of zeolite crystallites, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, temperature programme desorption (TPD) and many others (Schà ¼th, 2005). 3.0 GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF ZEOLITES Zeolites are used primarily in 3 major applications: ion-exchange, adsorbents, and catalysts. Natural zeolites play an important role in bulk mineral applications. Adsorbent applications: Common adsorbent applications focus on removal of small polar molecules and bulk separations, by more aluminous zeolites and based on molecular sieving processes respectively (Table 3). Table 3: Zeolite commercial applications as adsorbents Purification Bulk separations Drying: natural gas (including LNG), cracking gas (ethylene plants), refrigerant Normal/iso-paraffin separation, Xylene separation CO2 removal: natural gas, flue gas (CO2 + N2) cryogenic air separation plants Olefin separation, Separation of organic solvents Pollution abatement: removal of Hg, NOx, SO Separation of amino acids, n-nitrosoamines Sweetening of natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas Separation of CO2, SO2, NH3 Source: Flanigen (1980). Catalyst applications: Zeolites have the greatest use in catalytic cracking. They also play a role in hydroisomerisation, hydrocracking and aromatics processing. The strong acidity of zeolites plays a role in hydrocarbon processing. Asides this, they are finding increasing use in synthesis of fine chemicals and organic intermediates in isomerisation reactions, nucleophilic substitution and addition etc. Table 4: Zeolite applications in Catalysis Inorganic reactions: H2S oxidation, NO reduction of NH3, CO oxidation, reduction Hydrocarbon conversion: Alkylation, Cracking Organic reactions: Aromatization (C4 hydrocarbons), Aromatics (disproportionation, hydroalkylation, hydrogenation, hydroxylation, nitration, etc.) Dehydration Epoxidation Beckman rearrangement (cyclohexanone to caprolactam) Methanol to gasoline Chlorofluorocarbon decomposition Shape-selective reforming Source: Flanigen (1980); Galarneau et al (2001). Ion-exchange applications: Zeolite properties are directly exploited in several applications such as in the detergent industry, where zeolites are used for water softening or ‘building, animal food supplementation and in the treatment of wastewater (Townsend and Coker, 2001). Zeolite A has selectivity for Ca2+, thereby providing a unique advantage. Also, natural zeolites can be used to remove of Cs+ and Sr 2+radioisotopes through ion-exchange (Payra and Dutta, 2003). Table 5: Applications and advantages of Ion-exchange Applications Advantage Metals removal and recovery High selectivities for various metals Removal of Cs+ and Sr2+ Stable to ionizing radiation Detergent builder zeolite A, zeolite X (ZB-100, ZB-300) Remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ by selective exchange, no environmental problem Ion exchange fertilizers Exchange with plant nutrients such as NH4+ and K+ with slow release in soil Source: Flanigen (1980) Other Applications: Zeolites also play important roles in health-related applications (such as antibacterial agents, vaccine adjuvants, drug delivery, bone formation, biosensors and enzyme mimetics), oil refining, and petrochemical processes. Zeolite powders are used for odor removal and as plastic additives. Zeolitic membranes offer the possibility of organic transformations and separations coupled into one unit (Payra and Dutta, 2003). 3.1 ZEOLITES AND THE ENVIRONMENT Nearly all applications of zeolites are driven by environmental concerns, from cleaning toxic (nuclear) wastes, to treatment of wastewater, thereby reducing pollution. Zeolites have now been used to replace harmful phosphate builders in powder detergents due to water pollution risks. Zeolite catalysts help to save energy as they make chemical processes more efficient, minimising un-necessary waste and by-products. When used as solid catalysts and redox catalysts/sorbents, they reduce the need for corrosive liquid acids and remove atmospheric pollutants, (such as engine exhaust gases and ozone-depleting CFCs) respectively (Bell, 2001). In wastewater, zeolites (clinoptilolite, mordenite) are used to remove ammonia and ammonium ions (Townsend and Coker, 2001), as well as heavy metal cations and transition metals. 3.2 ZEOLITE CATALYSTS IN GREEN CHEMISTRY Zeolite catalysts have contributed to the design and synthesis of novel materials and development of new methodologies in organic synthesis, displacing the conventional and waste generating reagents thereby maximising atom utilization and reducing waste generated (E-factor). Zeolites play an important role in acid-catalyzed reactions such as acylation, alkylation, isomerisation and condensation, cyclisation and electrophilic aromatic substitution. Acylation of aromatic substrates: used in fine chemicals manufacture although has proven unsuccessful in less reactive aromatic compounds due to adsorption imbalance, unless performed in vapor phase using H-ZSM-5 (Singh and Pandey, 1997). 4.0 CONCLUSION Due to the role zeolites play mainly as catalysts in the environment as well as in chemical industry, the efficiency of the zeolite catalysts has been greatly improved. The yield and selectivity of the zeolite process is quantitative and in addition, reduces energy requirements, capital costs and complexity of equipments. Over the years, the synthesis process of zeolites have encompassed the principles of green chemistry as described in the report which has included waste prevention, energy efficiency, fewer environmental impacts, safer solvents, renewable materials, process intensification, catalysis and reduction in capital cost. Though present techniques seem to apply some of the principles of green chemistry, further research is still being employed to improve the overall process. 3.0 REFERENCES Aiello, R., Colella, C., Casey, D. G. and Sand, L.B. 1980. In L.V.C. Rees, ed. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Zeolites. Heyden Son, London, U.K. pp. 49. Armor, J. N. Applied Catalysis A: 189 (1999) 153-162. Baerlocher, C., Meier, W.M., Holson, D. 2001. Atlas of Zeolite Framework Types. 5th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Barrer, R. M. 1978.Zeolite and Clay Minerals as Sorbents and Molecular Sieves. Academic Press, London. Barrer, R.M. 1978. In L.B. Sand and F.A. Mumpton, eds. Natural Zeolites. Occurrence, Properties, Use. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. pp. 385. Barrer, R.M. 1982. Hydrothermal Chemistry of Zeolites; Academic Press: London. Barrer, R.M. J. Chem. Soc. (1950) 2342. Bell, R.G. 2001. Zeolites. [Online]Available at http://www.bza.org/zeolites.html. [Accessed 1 May 2010]. Breck, D.W. 1974. Zeolite Molecular Sieves. New York: Wiley. Colella, C. 1998. In J. Ma. Rincon and M. Romero, eds. Characterization Techniques of Glasses and Ceramics. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, Germany. pp. 112. Colella, C. 2005. Natural zeolites. In J. Cejka and H. van Bekkum, eds.Stud Surf Sci Catal 157. Cundy, C. S., Cox, P. A. 2003 .The Hydrothermal Synthesis of Zeolites: History and Development from the Earliest Days to the Present Time. Chem. Rev.103, pp.663-701. Cundy, C.S. and Cox, P.A. 2005. The hydrothermal synthesis of zeolites: Precursors, intermediates and reaction mechanism. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials. 82, 1-78. Damour, A., Hebd, C. R. Seances Acad. Sci. 44 (1857), pp. 975; also Ann. Chim. Phys., 3rd series, 53 (1858), pp. 438 (in French). De Gennaro, M., Colella, C., Franco, E. and Stanzione, D. Neues Jahrb. Mineral.-Mon.hefte. H.4(1988)149. Flanigen, E.M. 1980. Pure Appl Chem 52:2191-2211. Galarneau, A., Di Renzo, F., Fajula, F., Vedrine, J. eds., 2001. Zeolites and Mesoporous Materials at the Dawn of the 21st Century. Stud Surf Sci Catal 135. Goto and L.B. Sand. 1988. In D. Kallo and H.S. Sherry, eds. Occurrence, Properties and Utilisations of Natural Zeolites. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, Hungary. pp. 161. Jansen, J.C. 2001. The preparation of oxide molecular sieves: synthesis of zeolites. In H. Van Bekkum, E.M. Flanigen, P.A. Jacobs, J.C. Jansen, eds. Introduction to zeolite science and practice.2nd ed. Stud Surf Sci Catal 137. Lancaster, M. 2002. Green Chemistry: an introductory text. Cambridge: Royal society of chemistry. Ch.4. McDaniel, C.V., Maher, P.K. In J. A. Rabo, ed. Zeolite Chemistry and Catalysis. ACS Monogr.171(1976) pp.285 Milton, R.M. In M.L. Occelli, H.E. Robson, eds. Zeolite Synthesis. ACS Symp. Ser. 398 (1989) pp.1 Payra, P., Dutta, P.K. 2003. Zeolites: A Primer. In S.M. Auerbach, K. Carrado, P.K. Dutta, eds. Handbook of zeolite science and technology.New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. Ch.1. Schà ¼th, F. 2005. In J. Cejka and H. van Bekkum, eds. High-throughput experiments for synthesis and applications of zeolites. Stud Surf Sci Catal 157. Sheldon, R.A. 2000. A special topic issue on green chemistry: Atom efficiency and catalysis in organic synthesis. Pure Appl. Chem., 72(7), pp. 1233-1246. Singh, A. P., Pandey, A. K. J. Mol. Catal. A: Chemical 123(1997), 141 Szostak, R. 1989. Molecular Sieves Principles of Synthesis and Identification. 2nd Edition: Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, Blackie, London. Thompson, H.S. J. Royal Agric. Soc. Engl. 11 (1850), pp. 68. Townsend, R.P., Coker, E.N. 2001. Ion exchange in zeolites. In H. Van Bekkum, E.M. Flanigen, P.A. Jacobs, J.C. Jansen, eds. Introduction to zeolite science and practice. 2nd ed. Stud Surf Sci Catal 137. Tschernich, R.W. 1992. Zeolites of the World. Phoenix: Geoscience Press. Ullmann: Encyclopaedia of Industrial Chemistry. 2002. Zeolites. Wiley Interscience. W.R. Grace Co., DE2707313, 1977 (C. W. Chi, G. H. Hoffman). W.R. Grace Co., US3906076, 1973 (J. A. Goytisolo, D. D. Chi, H. Lee). Way, J.T. J. Royal Agric. Soc. Engl. 11 (1850), pp. 313.

Essay --

The Irises Plant is a bush with hundreds of flower’s on it. Currently the plant is dying because the Irise plant needs at least half a day of sun and well drained soil without both the plant will not bloom, that’s why they are mostly planted in the summer. Usually this plant when bloomed attracts a wide variety of animals and insects such as Verba bud moths, white flies, iris weevil, Thirps, slugs, snail, aphids, and nematodes may also be troublesome to the iris plant. There are three inner petals called standards, and three outer petals called falls which make up the irises plant. There are three hundred species of this plant and they come in all different colors and sizes, and some colors they come in are pink, orange, yellow, blue, purple, white as well as multi-color. The most common irises is the bearded German iris. Even though â€Å"The Extinction of Experience†, â€Å"Where have all the Animals Gone?† are referring mostly to animals, plants and ani mals are both apart of nature. Without plants some animals could not survive because they feed off of them. All of the stories are similar in a way because each one of the main characters are forcing themselves to face or confront something that is personally affecting them. For instance â€Å"I’ve always enjoyed my visits to our cities’ old public zoos. It was there harsh Juxtapositions, I think, the very characteristic that make them so sad, so unconscionable to some, that made them so compelling to me.† (Siebert 16). This quote expresses how the way they had these animals in cages was so unnatural because these different creatures would never be by each other in a natural habitat peacefully it would be chaos. This was compelling to Siebert because he knew this would never happen outside of... ...an never replace.† (Pyle 261). This quote to me is explaining how people find animals fascinating as far as the unknown about animals life’s even though we can see whales and fish we will never get to experience their lives and things that they go through on a daily basis. We could never live in their habitat and that unknown about not only there lives but the lives and habitats of other animals keeps us imagining what it would be like. That is what keeps us as humans interested and fascinated with animals. The overall concept of these three stories are focusing on animals, nature and how if we continue to take animals out of there natural habitats it may continue to cause animals to be extinct because they animals are not adapting. So if we do not face this problem head on we not only will face local extinction but they have a chance to face global eradication.

Monitoring Internet Communication

The Internet has for many become a symbol of freedom – freedom of communication, human interaction, and flow of information. People all over the world can with ease submit their ideas and feelings to this virtual medium and retrieve from it the equally free ideas of other people. However, some claim that Internet communication does not have to be as free as it is. Instead, it needs to be monitored to prevent its usage as a medium for terrorist organisations, drug dealers, fraudsters, and other criminal or unlawful groupings. Others point out that Internet is virtually the only way for people with oppressive regimes to access information that will present them with an objective picture of the outside world. While there are reasons for both points, free speech should take precedence in democratic nations, and therefore Internet monitoring is a harmful practice. Such monitoring is in fact a violation of free speech, one of the inalienable human rights. Generations of thinkers and revolutionaries lost their lives for the triumph of democracy that is only possible with free speech as one of its cornerstones. If the American journalists, for instance, had been deprived of the right to criticise Presidents, senators, congressmen, and other political leaders, it is hard to imagine what the nation would have turned into. Constant monitoring of political leaders is what gives the nation a chance to remain democratic. On the other hand, nations like China are banning certain websites to blind their citizens to what is going on in the rest of the world. This shows that freedom of speech is a hallmark of a democratic nation, and monitoring Internet communication violates these rights. Giving an individual person the right to know constitutes the respect of the autonomy of an individual. A human being has the right to access information pertaining to different spheres of life and should not be restricted in this ability by the opinion of the few. Since, if Internet communication is to be monitored to ban, for instance, pornographic material, the question arises: who will be the people that will decide what is pornography and what is not? The Ancient Greek statues could easily be termed inappropriate by some medieval priest. Putting access to information at the judgement of a few obscure individuals will make these people make decisions for all, and there is no guarantee that their judgement will help society make better choices. A popular objection that without monitoring Internet content someone â€Å"might unknowingly visit a Web site with this material and cause him- or herself mental harm† does not seem valid either (Garlock, 1999). The problem is that Internet is like life in the sense that it encompasses a great deal of its variety and glory. You cannot shield yourself from harmful influences in life any more than you can on the Internet. If someone is disgusted, for instance, by the site of the sick and the crippled, no one will remove them from streets just to please the person. Similarly, the Internet has to contain images and information about the outside world that reflects its diversity. Therefore, no one can isolate oneself from harmful influence on the Internet since they reflect real life. Thus, monitoring Internet communication is hardly a valid idea. In the political realm, it will lead to restriction of freedom that can bring about the emergence of un-democratic regimes oppressing ill-informed citizens. On the other hand, giving people a free medium is one of the ways to save them from the state’s propaganda machine by letting them see alternative viewpoints. Monitoring is also a bad idea because it will put the individual at the mercy of a select group that will perform the monitoring in accordance with their own ideas and perceptions. Finally, the idea of using Internet as a means of protecting people from undesirable content does not hold simply because no one can hide in a ‘hole’ from real life. The only option is to go to sites that you yourself think proper for you and avoid troublesome content. With respect to others, one can paraphrase Voltaire’s words: â€Å"I disapprove of what you post, but I will defend to the death your right to place it online†. References Garlock, A. (1999). Internet Censorship. Retrieved April 25, 2006 Wollstein, J. Freedom of Speech Under Siege. Retrieved April 25, 2006, from http://www.serendipity.li/cda/freespee.html

Stanford Essays - Lego, Toy Block, Free Essays, Term Papers

Stanford Essays - Lego, Toy Block, Free Essays, Term Papers Stanford Essay for Stanford As the beast ran rampant through the streets, I couldn't help but wonder if my work had been for naught. Trying to salvage any remains, I chased my dog from the room and stared at the havoc left in his wake. The city lay in ruins; the buildings were razed. The prospect of beginning from scratch was ponderous, but I instantly welcomed the challenge. With patience and determination, I began returning the small plastic bricks into their former glory; and then greater glory. Block by block I rebuilt my cities and block by block they built me. From these Legos I learned valuable lessons in versatility, creativity, and tenacity. The sheer vastness of possibilities that Legos present is both intimidating and exhilarating. The colorful blocks lay strewn about in no particular pattern and no particular order. From this chaos virtually anything can be created. As a child I gradually learned not to be intimidated by the endless possibilities but to embrace them, to relish the opportunity to create something from nothing. A preschool teacher recommended holding me back one year. Because I preferred the challenge of Legos to running about with the other children on the playground, she believed that I was socially and psychologically unprepared for school. Little did she realize that the creativity these blocks taught me became a cornerstone for the rest of my life. The seemingly insurmountable challenges gave me confidence and taught me to value cooperation. Watching my Lego edifices grow slowly but surely skyward taught me patience. Watching them fall again taught me the tenacity to continue onwards. Remembering how each task was created piece by piece allowed me to, line by line, memorize the works of history's greatest playwrights. I was able to join MEChA and help lead the Latino community as co-president, arranging events with our two hundred members. My organizational skills were further utilized as the commissioner of elections. Legos also taught me to help others and to ask for their help. I realized that with the creativity another person at my disposal, we could build things we had never even dreamed of on our own. During my senior year of High School I was introduced to crew. I was enthralled by the rhythmic grace of the sport. My dreams soon had me breathing the early morning air nearly flying over the surface of the water. This dream seemed destined to die unfulfilled because I grew up in a part of the country where crew refers to the roadside construction teams, but before the year was out I had convinced one of the Olympic coaches to take me under his wing. This interest is one I would like to develop further. As the years went by, my Lego blocks made way for the blocks of my future. But just like my experiences with Legos, I continue to choose individual blocks from chaos, each one bringing me closer to the life I dream of. The spires lead up to a diploma, the drawbridge leads to a family, and the buttresses support my lofty aspirations.

Current Issues in International Management

Current Issues in International Management Abstract Globalization has played a significant role in the world of business by allowing organizations to transact with little regard to national borders. This is so due to declining international trade barriers together with other international legal barriers that are opening the world to interact through trade more frequently.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Current Issues in International Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One such international trade organization is Union Carbide Limited, an American-based firm that established and operated a subsidiary plant in India for many years before a tragedy known as Bhopal disaster scuttled its operation in the country. However, what came out of that disaster were several ethical issues that the government of India, agencies of the government, the state government of Madhya Pradesh and the company abrogated. The disaster showed that companies could relax in key critical issues to do with the safety of the people, environment, and employees; however, such laxity may lead the firm to incur huge losses. Therefore, the ethical issues prompted the need for corporations to adopt corporate social responsibility policies to guide their operations. This paper looks at the Bhopal disaster ethical issues resulting from the disaster, the concept of corporate social responsibility, and the way it has come to dictate operations of multinational corporations in their international business. Corporate social responsibility, compensation systems As international barriers of trade become loose, MNCs presence in other nations, especially developing nations, became inevitable. As many praised activities of these international companies, it must not be forgotten that their negative effects continue to impact developing societies greatly. For example, one of the numerous criticisms leveled against MNCs in developing nations is that the inflow of FDI has contri buted to the reduction in efficiency while at the same time stifling growth in the host country (Spero and Hart, 2009). The argument is that most MNCs tend to be oligopolistic, predating the local firms and limiting their production, maintaining artificially high prices and as such, earns enormous oligopoly rents (Spero and Hart, 2009).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Despite earning a lot of oligopoly rents, the MNCs mostly fail to reinvest back in the particular nation but extract the rents through profit repatriation and straddling the growth of the developing country (Spero and Hart, 2009). Another argument is that most MNCs participate in blocking the national growth and economic prosperity by absorbing local capital instead of providing new capital. Also, they usually adopt inappropriate technology, create ‘bad’ jobs for the locals, conduct resea rch in their home countries instead of the host countries, and mostly employ expatriates instead of the indigenous people of the host country (Spero and Hart, 2009). Lata and Kumar, investigating and writing about the impact of MNCs in Indian society, noted that MNCs had the responsibility to abide by the laws and rules of the host country, but most MNCs had ignored this fact. The position of the writers is that most MNCs had failed to suit to the needs of the local people and were totally disregarding the values of the people instead facilitating and promoting the values of their foreign companies (Lata and Kumar, 2010). The author believes that MNCs have moral obligations to fulfill in the host society in which they are operating. Further, MNCs are described to be only interested in the low cost of factors of production available in the developing nations where they pay low wages to local employees despite massively exploiting the resources found in those regions. As such, Lata an d Kumar note that MNCs are only directed by their vested interests. Wayans, on another perspective, is convinced that MNCs have provided the developing nations with the necessary and vital financial infrastructures that they have used to develop both financially and socially.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Current Issues in International Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More But at the same time, the MNCs have also brought in, â€Å"relaxed codes of ethical conduct that serve to exploit the neediness of developing nations, rather than to provide the critical support necessary for countrywide economic and social development† (Wyans, 2008, p.1). Maybe it is the work of Germany sociologist, Ulrich that captured the role of MNCs in the global trade and transactions when the author explored the concept of risk society. Ulrich observed that, due to globalization and modernization of the world, there were new forms of changes taking place characterized mainly in mass production and technological advancement (Gennip, 2005, p.1). These processes in their form were changing the nature of risks. For instance, as companies strived to produce goods and services in large quantities and at the same time, advance in technology, immeasurable risks were being created in form of â€Å"nuclear, chemical, defense and genetic sectors and also from the generalized use of carbon-based fuels† (cited in Gennip, 2005, p.1). At the same time, widespread industrialization in its totality was exposing the climate of the whole world to more risks that in turn could results in catastrophic changes contributing immeasurable cost to the human society. Ulrich further noted that as these corporate risks intensified, the institutions charged with the responsibilities of managing the risks and protecting the lives of the people on overall were becoming unable to carry out their duties (cited in Gennip, 2005, p .1). This made the author note that, â€Å"threats have begun to outweigh socially agreed safety norms, and there seem to be no rational means at hand to achieve a rebalancing† (Gennip, 2005, p.1). Ulrich observed that there was increased intensification of transnational interdependence and what is evident is that there is establishment and growth in large-scale of â€Å"economic, cultural, political and societal globalization in which the dividing lines among states and even among Western and non-Western societies are ever less valid† (cited in Gennip, 2005, p.1).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Due to increasing technological advancement and the inevitability of global interconnectedness, risks were becoming largely unforeseen where at the same time, â€Å"many of these risks were eluding national control because truly they are global in character and because they can be the totally unforeseen consequence of rapid innovation and technological change† (Gennip, 2005, p.1). This scenario prompted Ulrich Beck to describe the modern and transnational market as a form of, â€Å"organized irresponsibility† and that there was no existence of global governance hence managing transnational corporations had become difficult (Gennip, 2005, p.1). Bhopal Gas Disaster of 1984 Union Carbide Corporation, in its internationalization prospects, established a constituent plant in Bhopal India that manufactured pesticide chemicals, but the night of December 3, 1984, remains as one particular indelible history in the world and specifically to the people and inhabitants of Bhopal r egion. That night, an industrial catastrophe took place at the Union Carbide Indian chemical plant where there was a leak emanating from one of three tanks that were used in storage of highly toxic chemicals that the company used as raw materials to manufacture pesticides (Fadil, 1998). Immediately the leak took place, the entire city of Bhopal was engulfed in a shroud of toxic gas resulting in death of about ten thousands people, about 200, 000 injured with other tens of thousands orphaned and rendered homeless (Shrivastava, n.d, p.1; Fadil, 1998). The parent company, Union Carbide Company, located in USA controlled majority of the share in the Indian plant (Fadil, 1998, p.1); and when the Indian disaster took place, not only deaths and injuries lingered in the minds of many but also the economic consequences. Many families were rendered with no viable financial source to depend on as more and more jobs became scuttled (Fadil, 1998, p.2). The Indian government spending on the needs of the affected people amounted to over $40 million (Hartley, 1993 cited in Fadil, 1998, p.2) while the parent company UCL became legally responsible for the disaster and had to pay $470 million as compensation for the incurred damages (Hartley, 1993 cited in Fadil, 1998, p.2). As a result of the accident, many questions revolving around the safety precautions and code of conduct by UCL are still being asked. The conviction among many analysts is that if the company had adhered strictly to its safety standards and code of conduct, then the accident would have been averted. The tragedy brought to limelight the complexities of morality of international and other big corporations in their business transactions, specifically in developing nations (Fadil, 1998, p.2). Analyzed from the cultural standpoint, the disaster took place because of cultural differences between India and UCL with American roots on how to carry out activities of a corporation in a safer way. For instance, the Indi an government bestowed all responsibilities to the American managers and trusted their ability to operate within appropriate safety measures. Once they were faced with budgetary pressures, the expatriates from America appeared to relax on the safety standards of the company exploiting the vacuum that existed due to lack of India’s government to legislate and enforce any meaningful protective law or regulations (Fadil, 1998, p.2); and as such, the disaster found opportune environment to take place. The legal responsibility bestowed upon the parent company indicates how corporations are being viewed and regarded as ethical institutions where their activities need to be regulated by some minimum moral aspects. As to what resulted in the accident, many factors have been cited. First, there is an almost consensus that the plant location was unfit since it was placed in a densely populated region (Fadil, 1998, p.4; Shrivastava, n.d). in addition, the UCL India management failed in its responsibility to provide early warning to the people of the region about the likely risks of the chemical plant. Moreover, there was notably poor communication connections between the Indian branch and the UCL main headquarter located in the city of Connecticut, USA and many of those employed at the Indian department had inferior training as far as the plant’s matters of technology were concerned especially with regard to appropriate storage of the pesticide chemicals (Fadil, 1998). Also, the Indian government has been held responsible for it lacked ‘tight’ safety standards for the company a compared to those of USA and operations at the Bhopal plant utilized sub-standard measures (Jackson, 1984 cited in Fadil, 1998). Lastly, employee-management problems have also been cited as a probable contributory factor where workers were highly demoralized and their ultimate output and concern for the company became reduced. To what extend can majority of ownership be used to ascertain the liability of various parties in case of major industrial accidents Subsidiary plants are seen to be playing an increasing and vital role especially in providing a competitive advantage but what is becoming clear is the fact that the division of decision making authority between the headquarter and the subsidiary responds to the institutional contexts of both the parent company and the subsidiary (Jong and Vo, 2010). The autonomy of the subsidiary plants is still a contested issue, although the autonomy of the subsidiary plants has gained momentum. But the variations that still exist in the home and host country environments next to and on top of a parent company and subsidiary characteristics constitute the main yardsticks used to determine variations in the autonomy of the subsidiary plants (Jong and Vo, 2010). Currently depending with the particular environments they operate in, MNCs are seen to be different in that, some MNCs give measurable autonomy to thei r subsidiaries in terms of decision-making while others still hold tight the activities and operations of their subsidiary plants. What is evident is that the relationship between the parent company and its subsidiary plants has become important while at the same time appear complicated, confusing and even conflicting (Jong and Vo, 2010). In some instances, the size of the parent company and the level of the diversification of its products have played a key role in autonomy of the subsidiary plants. As a matter of fact, determining the majority of ownership in an effort to ascertain liability in case of major industrial accidents has been hampered by relatively weak international institutions in providing clear guidelines about the operation and autonomy of subsidiary plants. Arguments over which is the best criterion or extent of putting liability responsibility to the parent company or subsidiary company has been a challenge due to loopholes in international systems guiding MNCs. Hence MNCs have been able to put liability of responsibility to their subsidiary plants knowing well the weak institutional environment in the host countries. What is needed is a clear insight into the role and extent of institutional environment in the autonomy of subsidiary plants both in the host and parent countries in which the MNCs operates. Such an understanding will make it possible to ascertain the level and extent of MNCs involvement in the operations of the subsidiary plants and also the level and extent of subsidiary autonomy so that in case of an industrial accident it becomes easier to identify whether it is the parent company or the subsidiary plant has the responsibility for the liabilities. Both national and international institutional framework for the parent and host country will be necessary for realizing this goal. To what extent should be the government responsibility in ensuring MNCs operate within safety frameworks? Pendleton (2004) argues that multinationals cannot just operate on voluntary actions to guarantee the safety upon which they need to carry out their actions. At the same time, Christian Aid organization argues that â€Å"voluntary action by multinational companies is not enough to guarantee the human rights and the environment of poor communities in developing countries is protected† (cited in Pendleton, 2004, p.1). As such the author together with the Christian Aid organization are of the views that there should be international regulatory standards in place with appropriate powers to ensure MNCs operate truthfully within CSR policies, they adopt (Pendleton, 2004, p.1). The convictions of these two categories of people are that while there are some companies that may operate responsibly there are others at the same time that may operate irresponsibly and CSR as the only policy to guide the social responsibility of companies demonstrate numerous loopholes. As such the responsibility of, â€Å"safeguarding the social and environmental rights of poor people as they come into contact with multinational corporations cannot be left solely to the discretion of those corporations† (Pendleton, 2004,p.6). Pendleton observes that in both the developed and developing worlds there exists numerous rules and regulations that companies have to abide to but there is variation from one nation to another with regard to how the controls are enforced. Consensus among many policymakers is that there is a broad agreement that the government has a significant role in formulating and facilitating the most appropriate mechanisms that can result in holding corporations to account for their actions. In its report titled, â€Å"Beyond Voluntarism† the international body concerned with human rights, International Council on Human Rights Policy noted that â€Å"If self-regulation and market forces were the best way to ensure respect for human rights, one might expect since this has been done the dominant parad igm, the number of abuses attributed to companies to have diminished. In fact, in many parts of the world, the experience of workers and communities is precisely the opposite† (Pendleton, 2004, p.5). The human rights watch group content that, MNCs activities in developing countries need to be regulated and the specific governments in developing countries can play an essential role in ensuring these regulation takes place. The government is given the responsibility to incorporate international law to regulate MNCs in their regions and MNCs powers should be limited by having in place a prevention code governing their conduct (Pendleton, 2004, p.5; Tripathi, 2010). An Implementation Plan presented at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in South Africa, shows that various governments should move with speed to, â€Å"actively promote corporate responsibility and accountability, including through the full development and effective implementation of intergovernmental ag reements and measures, international initiatives and public-private partnerships and appropriate national regulation regulations† (Pendleton, 2004, p.6). On its report, the Government of India’s industrial safety report noted that the government has a significant role to play towards ensuring the safety of plants, especially those operated by the MNCs. For instance, the report establishes that the government should accomplish the following: build and maintain an overall safety and health culture in all plants that operate in the country; design appropriate and suitable control systems of compliance, enforcement and incentives for better compliance; provide administrative and necessary technical support services; and establish and develop the research and development capability in emerging areas of risks and provide for effective control measures. In addition, it should focus on prevention strategies and monitoring performance through improved data collection system on p lant accidents and other related activities in industries; development and provision of the necessary technical manpower and knowledge in the critical areas of industrial safety and environment; and continue to establish effective mechanisms that can be used to enhance community awareness regarding industrial safety and the environment. Moreover, it plays a part in designing and providing in advance effective enforcement machinery as well as suitable provision for compensation and rehabilitation of affected persons; effectively putting into application laws and regulations concerning industrial safety, health and the general environment through adequate and elaborative inspection system. Other aspects worth noting include ensuring employers and employees and other people affected by the particular industry have distinctive and separate but complementary responsibilities and rights particularly to achieving safe industrial working environment; making changes to the existing laws and regulations related to industrial safety and align them with relevant international instruments; and lastly by monitoring the adoption of national standards through regulatory authorities (Government of India, n.d). Government agencies have a responsibility to ensure policies of the government concerning safety are observed. For instance, agencies are given powers to issue permits, licenses, carry out feasibility studies, conduct monitoring, and evaluation of various plants and as an overall duty, ensure industries or plants adhere to total quality assurance practices. Bhopal disaster indicated how the government agencies relaxed on their duty if not a requirement. When industries flout in their safety policies without government agencies sounding alarm, then in great measure they are abrogating in their duties. Agencies, unlike the government, are full of technocrats in their specific area and their role is to see implementation of the government policies with any failure. When the agencies fail in their duty then according to the law, they have acted out of negligence which they should bear legal responsibility for such negligence. Which criteria should be used in determining compensation for the Victims? Compensation for the Bhopal disaster victims has been a long and bitter battle for justice both in Indian and American courts (Engel and Martin, 2006). Five methods have been suggested by Engel and Martin which the company can use to ease the tension or go over the case: â€Å"covering the evidence, devaluing the victims, reinterpreting the events, utilizing official investigations in response to the event and intimidating and bribing the victims† (Engel and Martin, 2006). However, which is the appropriate compensation scheme for the victims? There exist principal methods of compensating victims of any particular accident and these methods include the common law action for damages; workmen’s compensation; medical benefits insurance; other form s of personal accident insurance and social welfare payment. Looking at the Bhopal disaster and how compensation was facilitated, it became evident that the compensation scheme was individual-based, where the criterion mainly put into consideration the: deaths, and injuries the victims suffed. In its nature, the system shows numerous loopholes, for instance, determining to extend and magnitude of individual injury and equating it with ‘appropriate’ amount of money largely appear impossible. Also, an individualistic system is mostly economically oriented postulating that perfect compensation in terms of money for the victim will bring out total healing. The suggestion is that for a total and more comprehensive compensation scheme to be realized then there is a need for a holistic investigation, analysis and determination of the emotional, psychological, physical, environmental and societal injury the victim has undergone and the broad consequences the injury has affected the victim in terms of these aspects. The Indian government took the responsibility of carrying out compensation to the victims using â€Å"a multi-tier grievance redressal system† (Mahapatra, 2010, p.1) a conservative system of compensation that even when some victims went to court to challenge it, the supreme Indian Court did little to subvert the government policy it had adopted on the victim compensation(Mahapatra, 2010). This compensation scheme was primarily based on specific individuals for death or injury; therefore, it was an individual-based distribution scheme. It failed to respond to the severe medical and social consequences of the Bhopal disaster (Kibel, 1999). As such, this individual-based scheme needs to be integrated with community-based distributions for it to be appropriate (Kibel, 1999). The community-based distributions will be essential in providing funds to the institutions, programs, and services that are involved in serving the larger collective gro up of persons poisoned and injured especially those of Bhopal accident (Kibel, 1999). This, in turn, will contribute to long-term relief of the survivors. Under the community-model of compensation, Indian government instead of individually compensating the individuals can invest in modern hospitals, staff and facilities, invest in programs and services to address soil detoxification and family relocation, invest in schools, programs for job retraining and new housing construction with aim of improving long-term social security benefits for the victims of the disaster(Kibel, 1999). To ensure speedy and fair compensation for the victims, a transparency report analysis of the victims is necessary and also coordination of crucial government agencies need to work in harmony and transparent manner. The most critical agencies that should oversee their activities related to victim compensation include health, legal, and the treasury. A fair compensation criterion is only viable when the age ncies facilitating the compensation process are able to design the scheme purely by considering the various and interrelated factors that are perceived to be associated with the injured victim. In this regard, factors of social, economic, emotional, psychological, environmental, and physical need to be incorporated in designing an effective, fair compensation scheme. Therefore, the proposition is that assessment of damages on the part of the victim should be thorough, transparent, efficient, and non-bias for fair and fulfilling compensation to be realized. Courts responsible for handling the Bhopal victims’ case MNCs for a long time have operated within the legal principles of â€Å"separation of corporate identity and ‘forum non-conveniens,’ and the effects of these principles has been that MNCs operate with double standards† (Meeran, 1999, p.1). As it will be evident from the developing countries, the legal justice systems are relatively weak and loophol ed an opportunity MNCs will want to exploit especially in liability cases (Strike, Gao and Bansal, 2006). Bhopal disaster offers a candid example whereby UCL fought for the case to be facilitated by the Indian courts claiming that the accident took place in India, involving Indians and therefore it was ‘rightful’ for the Indian courts to carry out the case instead of the American courts. The corporate veil law gives the parent company owning subsidiary plant in another region a break from being held responsible in legal terms for any behaviors regarded as unlawful by the subsidiary plant and the MNCs are only seen and recognized to be shareholders (Meeran, 1999, p.1). Therefore, citing the Bhopal case and considering the law in place, it becomes clear that the Indian country is the custodian to Bhopal disaster case and not America, although ultimate justice may be a pipe-dream. When MNCs escapes responsibilities of their subsidiary plants the victims who suffer become d ifficult for them to achieve meaningful justice redress (Meeran, 1999, p.1). Therefore, what is needed is the development of commercial law in relation to MNCs to ensure that significant cases involving MNCs are tried and litigated in a country that appear and demonstrate the ability of being cost-effective especially relieving the burden of the defendant and also in a country that seems to be, â€Å"clearly and distinctly more appropriate forum in which the victim is assured to receive genuine justice† (Meeran, 1999, p.1; Anon, 2010). International law framework is growing at a commendable speed and the interesting but encouraging thing about the law is its ability to institute effective mechanisms of holding corporations accountable for their actions (Association for Women’s Rights in Development, 2008, p.1). The modern world operates on the conviction that political, social and environmental policy and an effective human rights model is critical and essential in est ablishing a fair, just and equal society (Association for Women’s Rights in Development, 2008, p.1). Today both the government and corporation are bestowed with legal responsibility, especially with regard to violation of human rights. The International Criminal Court has in its structures established a legal mechanism that tries to see government and corporations operate in the best interests with aim to promote and enhance human rights. Although corporations have resisted these attempts of regulation by the international law enforcement agents claiming that their voluntary initiatives coupled with codes of conduct are enough to ensure sufficient protection of human rights, the international law agencies have remained steadfast and argued that corporations need to bear economic and legal obligations and accountability for their actions (Association for Women’s Rights in Development, 2008, p.1). In ensuring the adherence to principles of human rights the international criminal court has emphasized that corporations that violate human rights in any nature should be accountable and compensate in terms of indemnification, restitution and rehabilitation for the accident incurred to an individual when violation of such individual’s rights takes place. When Bhopal disaster took place, there was gross violation of human rights by the parent and subsidiary companies involved. People lost lives, others were seriously injured and impaired while others deformed, and the overall environment of the region was destroyed. Hence these events account for gross violation of human rights which in turn prompts the international court to hold both the government of India and UCL Company for failure to ensure security of people and the environment and thus be accountable both legally and economically to the victims of the disaster. To what extent are courts appropriate in resolving international liability cases? International liability cases exhibit more compet ing interests between the parties interested in the case and therefore, any forum apart from court is likely to be influenced or biased by the weighty issue of the matter. The court system appears to have well defined procedural conduct and code of carrying out its operation that manifests no or less bias. The panel of judges is largely guided by strict code of ethics and therefore, their decisions are likely to be impartial and less influenced by the interested parties. But at the same time, there are other avenues that the court can refer the parties to in an outside-court resolution of the dispute. Such forums include conflict resolution institutions, board committees, citizen dispute settlement programs, and multi-door tribunal. To ensure fairness the court can keep some relative form of involvement in the alternative dispute resolution mechanism. What corporate and business policies should firms’ adopt in order to minimize occurrence of major accidents? With increasing c ompetition, there is likelihood that firms may engage in activities that may compromise the safety of employees, community, and environment (Fatima, 2007). It is against this background that corporate social responsibility policies and business code of conducts are becoming popular as frameworks that guide the various operations of the firms (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2005). In 2004, Economic Intelligence Unit carried out a research that established that there is increasing emphasis on corporate responsibility and this was having an effect on how various companies related with their stakeholders such as investors, customers, suppliers, employees, communities and governments (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2005). In another survey conducted the same year involving 166 executives of the various companies and 65 investors, it was observed that: CSR was becoming a central and critical consideration in investments decisions (85%). The three vital aspects of CSR identified by the respond ents were ethical behavior of staff, good corporate government, and transparency of corporate dealings. Finally, the respondents also identified the importance of CSR to enhance firm’s brand (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2005). The risks presented by forces of globalization, competition, increasing technology coupled with growing business ‘misbehavior’ for the stakeholders and the environment have necessitated need for corporate social responsibility programs to ensure businesses create and improve their ability to function within the precepts of sustainable development (Rooyen, 2007). In return, CSR has provided continuous benefits to the business and its stakeholders despite the size of the business and once a business operate within well-defined guidelines, and the business entity becomes more competitive because of enforcing a workable CSR policy (Rooyen, 2007). As a result, Rooyen notes that â€Å"the attraction of corporate social responsibility for many b usinesses is that it can help to increase sustainability without creating negative effects† (Rooyen, 2007, p.1). Activities of MNCs have â€Å"prompted international organizations, the media, human rights groups, social investors and consumers, as well as some corporate executives, to discuss the responsibility MNCs share† in promoting social safety and stability of the society (Bennett, 2002). Social responsibility includes both the economic and legal obligation but also reflects, â€Å"Ethical standards or judgments of social desirability† (Boatright, 2003 cited in Bacher, 2007, p.9). In its broadest definition and operation, social responsibility is further seen to include the environmental responsibility and the concern for sustainability, whereby these, â€Å"additional behaviors and activities are not necessarily codified into law but are expected of business by society’s members† (Carroll, 1979 cited in Bacher, 2007, p.9). As such, corporate social responsibility (CSR) has come to characterize MNCs operations in the developing countries. Although it constitutes varying meanings, CSR definition is adopted to indicate that: private sector firms have a responsibility to ensure that they do not contribute to the violations of human rights and that they promote and respect of these rights and respect needs to be observed in terms of employee core labor standards. Besides, MNCs have to ensure that local communities benefit from larger company’s operations in the developing nations; that there is responsible management of environmental impacts of a company’s operations, including emissions, waste and use of sustainable resources, as well as avoid cases of corruption and increase transparency in their business practices. Moreover, there is need for incorporation of social and environmental criteria in procurement decisions (Unden, 2007). The concept of corporate social responsibility gained momentum during the per iod of intense globalization between the 1950s and 1970s (Bacher, 2007). These periods saw post-war investments by the America companies in Europe and Japan intensify and as a result, most of the USA companies put a lot of their capital in these nations; consequently, the corporation grew in size and power (Bacher, 2007). As MNCs activities intensified abroad, social issues such as poverty, racism and unemployment together with environmental degradation became the focal issues that attracted numerous requests for the companies to modify their roles and take more significant part in community involvement and activities (Bacher, 2007). The initial corporate social responsibility outlines were concerned with how to secure and maximize profits for the shareholders, but as time elapsed, social and ethical responsibilities started to attract attention especially after acceleration in some big-scale corporate wrongdoing such as tax evasion and exploitation of foreign governments by the man ipulation of transfer prices (Bacher, 2007). CSR and business ethics advocates postulate, â€Å"Corporations have an interest in leveraging their skills and impact to promote stability in their areas of operation, not only because it is the right thing to do, but also because it makes good business sense† (Bennett, 2002). In order to ‘police’ the operations of the MNCs, traditional human groups have utilized international law to ensure these corporations are not complicit in human rights abuses and the overall general consensus has been that MNCs operating across borders need to take responsibility for the effects of their operations on the local environment and population (Bennett, 2002). Multinational corporations have been seen to challenge the ability of sovereign nations to control corporate operations and impacts where they appear to be too big and powerful (Boatright, 2003 cited in Bacher, 2007). At the same time, unregulated operations of the MNCs have th rived due to poor enforcement of the international law which has led to vacuum that only self-imposed, enforced and monitored standards can fill, making it a risky undertaking (Bacher, 2007). When these MNCs show laxity in their corporate operation, the public concern heightens due to lack of a representative to champion the interests of the society. Generally, what becomes evident among these MNCs is the lack of social and environmental responsibility, where social responsibility arises from social power that MNCs possess (Bacher, 2007). In some cases, self-imposed standards have existed, but they have been limited to addressing only the interests of the corporation and the avenues where the corporation function-market (Bacher, 2007). CSR has been viewed by others to be costly, and therefore reduce the profitability of the firm. However, the basis here can be that business as an entity has responsibility to numerous and diverse groups in society and not just owners of the business (Corporate social responsibility, n.d). The responsibility further extends to the natural environment and the community. With the growing awareness among the people and increasing risks created or initiated by businesses, it becomes costly to a company if it does not act responsibly or if the general perception believes, the business is not being responsible to its stakeholders. Therefore any meaningful balance between well created CSR policies and guidelines and the cost associated in implementing them have a chance to re-brand the image of the business, increase stakeholders confidence in the business and also reduces legal costs for the business and in the long-run the benefits for the business will outweigh the initial costs of implementation. Critical ethical issues from the Bhopal disaster The Bhopal disaster is an event that revealed how ethical behavior can elapse at full watch by key stakeholders such as the government, organs of the government and the companies involved. T herefore, because of the disaster, critical ethical issues emerged specifically from the tragedy itself, the conduct, and reaction of the UCL Company, the government’s role, the company’s failure to ensure appropriate safety measures and standards and lastly the agony of the victims due to delayed justice. When the tragedy took place, the first reaction of the UCL Company was to deny and distance itself from drama claiming the Indian plant was fully responsible. Further, the company accused one of its employees to have carried out ‘a sabotage mission’ in a ‘revenge’ attack. Ethically how can UCL, with majority shares in Indian plant, deny its responsibility to the tragedy? How is the current law concerning MNCs contribute to MNCs evasion of duties due to the inappropriate behaviors of the subsidiary plants and hence is it ethical for such law to continue operating in such form? Further is it ethically for MNCs continue controlling their subsid iary plants in terms of daily operations but in an event of accident leave the responsibilities to the plant in an effort to evade duties and if so, what should be the extend of MNCs involvement in activities of their subsidiary plants? On its part, was it ethical for the Indian government to grant the company land in a densely populated region even after studies showing the dangers of such undertaking was carried out? Was it ethical for the same government to entrust the company with full responsibilities of enacting safety standards without regulation or monitoring mechanisms in place? Why was the government reluctant to inspect the equipment of the company to ensure its safety and sustainability? Was it ethical for the state government of Madhya Pradesh to deny the citizens of Bhopal critical safety information that would have enlightened them on the possibility of disaster occurring (Frewen, 2010)? For UCL Company, how was there reaction? Why did they not alert people? Why were the alarms not functioning? After the tragedy, UCL CEO came to India but was arrested by the state of Madhya Pradesh police before the New Delhi government intervened and secretly deported him, therefore, was it ethical for the company to deport the CEO when charges against him were abundant (Frewen, 2010)? And up to now, the CEO is still free and comfortable, while victims loathe in suffering and despair, hence is it ethical for the legal and government institutions to continue with their laxity in ensuring justice is done? Then lastly on the compensation of the victims, was it done in an ethical manner of fairness and justice, putting in place numerous factors as a result of the disaster? Did the compensation meet the emotional, psychological, and physical torture of the victims, how ethical should the compensation system be carried out? Is it moral for justice to victims to continue being delayed? And how ethical can the government, agencies of government, and the company ensure future business operations do not pose risks to the citizen? In short, Bhopal disaster demonstrate ethical issues that can be seen to originate from a chain of development of technology where the decision to operate a dangerous plant in a densely populated region, which did not have capacity for technical and institutional infrastructure to support it, compromised decisions in terms of giving the facility the necessary safety standards. This is in addition to failure to properly operate and ensure the facility is well maintained and more sorrowfully and ethically wrong the failed position of the government and industry to look beyond the legal issues and in a humane manner attend to the needs and justice of the victims. All these questions revolve around the ethicality of events that surrounds the Bhopal disaster, which when investigated, can reveal how corporate social responsibility frameworks and policies are necessary for the business. How should corporate responsibility toward environmental protection, worker, and community safety change? Evidence from the developing nations is that MNCs are operating in such countries’ import’ CSR from their home countries with less regard to the varying and interrelated factors that exist and affect the overall existence and operation of business in developing countries. Therefore, when the implementation process starts, it becomes clear that achieving the goals or connecting the CSR policies to critical stakeholders do not succeed. What is needed in new CSR policies are that the culture, values, norms of the host country regarding work, environment and community need to be studied and incorporated (Waldman, Luque, Washburn and House, n.d; Robertson and Fadil, 1999). Further community affected by the activities of the company need to be integrated into decision-making processes on what particular responsibilities should the company working in their area be involved in. This will make the CSR policies to re flect the specific societal issues and concerns in which they intend to operate. At the same time, most stakeholders in developing countries have little understanding of the CSR and therefore, education, training and public awareness need to be incorporated in the CSR designed for these countries. The role of government need not be ignored as a key and powerful institution controlling activities in which MNCs operate (Porter and Kramer, n.d). The government assumes a principal responsibility in ensuring effective and appropriate CSR work within the established framework. For the Bhopal tragedy, the voluntary aspects that the company would have done include: public education and awareness on the importance and dangers of MIC, establishing an emergency communication system for efficiency in case of disaster and participating in a continuous environment safety auditing of their facility to ensure defaulters are detected early. Conclusion Globalization is a phenomenon that cannot be ign ored especially its impacts of internationalization (Bennett, 2002). Corporations’ movement to the developing nations is proving to be profitable, especially with consideration of the reduction in the cost of factors of production available in these regions. Nevertheless, the presence of big corporation wielding a lot of influence and power has resulted in these corporations participating in numerous ‘misbehaviors’ and later using legal mechanisms to evade the responsibilities. The corporation’s misbehavior is manifested in the prolonged environmental destruction, overexploitation of resources, poor working conditions for its employees and even endangering the safety of the larger community. As a way of regulating and ensuring appropriate business conduct and behavior is promoted, CSR and codes of conduct are fast-becoming requirements for the corporations to adhere to. At the same time, existing literature postulates the role the parent MNCs can foster to its subsidiary plants, especially in developing countries. When compared to the operations in their home countries, MNCs are seen to adhere to the regulatory and law institutions more strictly and this has resulted in stricter corporate social responsibility being observed. Moreover, beyond complying with the increasingly stringent regulations, most MNCs are determined to preserve their ethical image, avoid serious legal liabilities, satisfy the safety concerns of the employees, consumers and the communities they are working with. In addition, they need to respond to government regulators and other stakeholders and develop new safer business in order to remain competitive in the world market (Wehrmeyer and Mulugetta, 1999). Therefore, since most MNCs in their home countries have been able to adopt global standards established by the international trade and investment organizations, the same organizations have to exert influence on their subsidiary plants to adopt global standards o f proactive environmental management strategies (Wehrmeyer and Mulugetta, 1999). International certification such as ISA 9000 also can be adopted by MNCs in their subsidiary plants since such certification ensures firms total quality management (TQM) measures have been met and therefore environmental, social, and economic safety of it is constituent’s plants can be guaranteed (Wehrmeyer and Mulugetta, 1999). At the same time, the corporations can use international standards such as Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) and also ISO 14000 to instruct its constituent plants to adopt and adhere to such global corporate management systems. Therefore, it will be necessary for the MNCs corporations to adopt and implement sustainable CSR and the role of the government should be to ensure these corporations’ operations are carried out within proper legal framework. References Anon. (2010). Transnational Corporations Liability for environment Harms. Retrieved from http://inves ting.blogandinfo.com/2010/08/07/transnational-corporations-liability-for-environmental-harms/. 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D. and Vo, D. V. (2010). The impact of institutional environment on the autonomy of MNCs subsidiaries. Problems and  Perspectives in Management, Vol.8, Issue.2. Retrieved from http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=vq=cache:dnQcTMVgqO0J:www.businessperspectives.org/journals_free/ppm/PPM_EN_2010_02_Jong.pdf+the+extend+majority+can+be+used+to+determine+MNCs+ownership+of+their+subsidiarieshl=engl=kepid=blsrcid=ADGEESiaWwGxUInkMDb8Q99k_9EaGuBCV8Ze4DDHvMS7b799P7tvEUz7qmghJUIZtUDM1Uegx1YSE8na4zRs0D02x7xJQOlk7f3S3F-scw_sBGj aIHtCv9cpwEQVnrKd6siGh4rdJUsgsig=AHIEtbT_B3k6KrGpU_l44z7aC2mtJUSYoQ. Kibel, P. S. (1999). The earth on trial: environmental law on the international stage. NY, Routledge. 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